Romance Gender Benders:
Date: Saturday, December 08 @ 04:36:39 EST
Topic: Lingustics
Gender of Nouns in the Romance languages Introduction The purpose of this list is to aid learners of a second Romance language avoid gender confusions with their first Romance language. Mutatis mutandis, the same goes for third and fourth languages. The list covers Portuguese, Spanish, French and Italian, in geographical order from west to east on the map of Europe. The purpose is didactic, so logical elegance is mostly sacrificed to practical considerations.
This list tries to tread the narrow line between completeness and prolixity. I have generally avoided the obscure. Nonetheless, I am certain to have omitted important items. This is inevitable, since there is no foolproof way to detect gender differences among cognates.
The English equivalents are very succinct, and often fail to explain all meanings.
The following list is a succession of tetrads. An example of a tetrad is:
| PORT. | SPANISH | FRENCH | ITALIAN | LATIN | ENGLISH | | a calma | la calma | le calme | la calma | tranquillitas | calm, stillness |
It is called a tetrad ("group of four") because only 4 languages are at issue here; Latin and English are presented merely as explanatory elements. The four nouns in each tetrad are equivalents, that is to say synonyms of each other. As a rule they are also cognates of one another.
This list contains about two hundred tetrads.
The tetrads are grouped by heading, which shows the idealized form or model of the tetrads included. The above tetrad is to be found under the heading FFMF, which means that the cognate in question is masc. in French and fem. in Port., Span. & Ital.
The four nouns in each tetrad are equivalents or almost equivalents, that is to say synonyms, and generally they are also cognates of one another. Sometimes there is no equivalent cognate. Then special rules apply:
The letter X instead of an M or F in a heading indicates that there is no commonly used equivalent cognate in the language in question. For example, the tetrad
| PORT. | SPANISH | FRENCH | ITALIAN | LATIN | ENGLISH | | [tâmara] | el dátil | la datte | il dattero | dactylus | date (fruit) |
has form XMFM. The X means that in Port. there is no commonly used derivative of Lat. dactylus. Note that the Port. equivalent of dactylus is between brackets to denote that it is not a cognate of the other elements.
In such cases the non-equivalent or false cognate may be listed, but underlined to show it is not equivalent to the other cognates.
The letter A (for "ambiguous") is inserted into a heading when a word has ambiguous gender. For example, the tetrad
| PORT. | SPANISH | FRENCH | ITALIAN | LATIN | ENGLISH | | o mar | el/la mar | la mer | il mare | mare (n) | sea |
is MAFM; the A indicates that in Span. the derivative of mare can be either masc. or fem.
| PORT. | SPANISH | FRENCH | ITALIAN | LATIN | ENGLISH | | intervenção (f) | intervención (f) | intervention | intervento (m)
intervenzione (f) | interventus (m),
*interventio (f) | intervention |
The heading for this tetrad is FFFA. The A reflects the fact that in Ital. there are two different cognates of similar meaning and different gender.
The introduction of the A category makes this article a compendium of gender ambiguity in all four Romance languages here studied.
Additional tetrads are presented which need not display gender disparity; their purpose is to warn of homographs and other items introduced for purposes of comparison. Such tetrads are printed in italics. They appear after the tetrad to which they refer.
Likewise, notes which refer to an entire tetrad, or several, are printed in italics in the body of the text.
Suffixes and other noun endings
Unless otherwise noted, in Port., Span. & Ital.:
- nouns ending in -a are fem. and
- nouns ending in -o are masc.
Unless otherwise noted, Latin nouns ending in -a are fem. (or neuter plural); nouns ending in -us are masc., and nouns ending in -um (plural -a) are neuter.
Nonetheless, for purposes of clarity, the gender marker is usually left in, except where space is lacking.
Noun suffixes like the cognates of -ation, -ance, etc. are associated with certain genders in the Romance languages. On the whole the gender pertaining to a given suffix is uniform among all four languages, to wit FFFF or MMMM.Example:
FFFF
| PORT. | SPANISH | FRENCH | ITALIAN | LATIN | ENGLISH | | -ação (f) | -ación (f) | -ation (f) | -azione (f) | -atio (f) | -ation |
The causes of gender disparity
There appear to be four main causes of gender disparity among Romance languages. The first three relate to suffixes.
1. Choice of a different suffix associated with another gender:
Choice of a different suffix associated with another gender: Example:FFFM
| PORT. | SPANISH | FRENCH | ITALIAN | LATIN | ENGLISH | | a referência | la referencia | la référence | il referimento [ratio] | | reference |
The choice of suffix seems to be influenced by the period in the development of Latin during which the term is accepted into the Romance language in question. Thus, the suffix -mento, which is often preferred to -zione in Ital., seems to have been most popular in Low Latin.
2. Some languages use a suffix and others do not. These are the cases of Lat. caput (FFMM), rete (FFMF) and exterminium (MMFM).
Some languages use a suffix and others do not. These are the cases of Lat. (), () and (). 3. One language associates a certain ending with a different gender than the other languages. There one suffix each in Port., Span. and French which is characteristically fem. 1, while in the other three languages it is masc., to wit:
One language associates a certain ending with a different gender than the other languages. There one suffix each in Port., Span. and French which is characteristically fem., while in the other three languages it is masc., to wit:
a. FMMM
| PORT. | SPANISH | FRENCH | ITALIAN | LATIN | ENGLISH | | -agem (f) | -aje (m) | -age (m) | -aggio (m) | -aticum, *-agium | -age |
Example:
| a voltagem | el voltaje | le voltage | il voltaggio | -- | voltage |
b. MFMM
| -ume (m) | -umbre (f) | -ume (m) | -ume (m) | various | -- |
Example:
| o legume | la legumbre | le légume | il legume | legume2 (n) | vegetable; legume |
c. MMFM
| or (m) | or (m) | eur (f) | ore (m) | or (m) | or |
Example:
| o licor | el licor | la liqueur | il liquore | *liquor (m) | liquor (drink) |
This refers only to the -eur ending when it is a suffix added to an adjective (chaud - la chaleur). It does not refer to the noun consisting of -eur attached to a verb, which denotes the performer of some action, like professeur or éclaireur. There are certain other nouns ending in -eur which are masc., to wit le bonheur and honneur (m). 4. The fourth explanation does not point to suffixes, but rather to gender drift. In the same way as dialects and languages drift away from each other in terms of meaning of cognates, phonology, vocabulary and grammar, they drift randomly away from each other in the gender of their nouns. Sometimes this is encouraged by the fact that the Latin etymon is of ambiguous gender, as in serpens (m/f) (FFMM) "snake" or margo (m/f) (FAFM) "edge, shore."
The asterisk * before a Latin word means that it is a word from mediaeval Latin, not classical Latin like the others. In some cases the * word exists in classical Latin, but with a different meaning from mediaeval Latin, and it is the latter meaning which is preserved in the cognates.
+ before a word indicates that it is the principal equivalent in that language. Example:
| PORT. | SPANISH | FRENCH | ITALIAN | LATIN | ENGLISH | | o pavor, [+o medo] | el pavor, [+el miedo] | la peur | la paura | pavor (m) | fear |
The +s mean that in Port. & Span. pavor is not the principal word meaning "fear"; rather it is medo/miedo. However, in French & Ital., the pavor cognates are the principal word meaning "fear."
G marks the genitive of a Latin noun. The genitive is indicated when the Romance cognates appear to be derived from this case.
FMMM
| a ponte | el puente | le pont | il ponte | pons (m), G pontis | bridge | | a viagem | el viaje | le voyage | il viaggio | viaticum | trip, voyage | | a voltagem | el voltaje | le voltage | il voltaggio | -- | voltage |
This is an oft-repeated pattern, since the -agem ending is always fem. in Port., whereas its cognates are always masc. [except for cartilagem (FMMF)].
But:AMMM
o pedágio (Br.)
a peagem (Port.) | el peaje | le péage | il pedaggio | [vectigal] | toll |
MFFF
| o pesadume | la pesadumbre | la pesanteur | pesantezza | [gravitas] | heaviness | | o bando | la banda | la bande | la banda | [grex] | gang |
MFMM
| o/a lhama | la llama | le lama | il lama | -- | llama (S. American beast) | a chama
| la llama
| la flamme
| la fiamma
| flamma (f)
| flame
| o lama
| el lama
| le lama
| il lama
| --
| lama (Buddhist priest)
| a lama
| --
| --
| --
| lama (f)
| mud
| a lamina, a [folha]
| [hoja]
| la lame
| la lama,
| lamina (f)
| blade (of knife/sword)
| | o leite | la leche | le lait | il latte | lac (n), G lactis | milk |
| o massacre, [+a matança] | la masacre, [+la matanza] | le massacre, [+la strage] | il massacro | [trucidatio] | massacre |
| o leite | la leche | le lait | il latte | lac (n), G lactis | milk |
| o mel | la miel | le miel | il miele | mel (n) | honey |
| | o nariz | la nariz | le nez | il naso | naris (f), nasus, nasum | nose | | o sangue | la sangre | le sang | il sangue | sanguis (m) | blood | | o sal | la sal | le sel | il sale | sal (n) | salt | | o sinal | la señal | le signal | il segnale | signum | sign | | o espinafre | la espinaca | épinards (m) | i spinaci | spinacea | spinach | | o legume | la legumbre | le légume | il legume3 | legume (n) | vegetable; legume | | o capuz | la capucha | le capuce | il cappuccio | [cucullus] | hood (over head) |
| o moral | la moral | le moral | il morale | -- | morale | a moral
| la moral
| la moral
| la morale
| --
| ethics, morals
| a moral
| la moral
| la moral
| la morale
| --
| moral of a story
|
FMFF
| a equipe, a equipa | el equipo | équipe (f) | équipe (f), [+la squadra] | --- | team (of people) | | a insônia | el insomnio | insomnie (f) | insonnia (f) | insomnia (f) | insomnia | | a origem | el origen | origine (f) | origine (f) | origo (f), G originis | origin | | a pálpebra | el párpado | la paupière | la palpebra | palpebra (f) | eyelid | | a sentinela | el centinela4 | la sentinelle | la sentinella | [custos] | sentry | | a toupeira | el topo | la taupe | la talpa5 | talpa (f) | mole (small mammal) | | o canalha6 | el canalla7 | la canaille | la canaglia | [sclestus] | scoundrel | | Tunisia (f) | Túnez (m) | la Tunisie | la Tunisia | -- | Tunisia |
MMFM
| o apóstrofo | el apóstrofo | apostrophe (f) il apostrofo | apostrophus | apostrophe (punctuation) | | | o aspargo, (o espargo | el espárrago | asperge (f) | asparago (m) | asparagus | asparagus | | o clarinete | el clarinete | la clarinette | il clarinetto | -- | clarinet | | o contágio | el contagio | la contagion | il contagio | contagium, contagio (f) | contagion | | o dente | el diente | la dent | il dente | dens (m), G dentis | tooth | | o extermínio | el exterminio | extermina tion (f) | lo sterminio | exterminium | extermination | | o figo | el higo | la figue | il fico | ficus (f) | fig | | o fresco, o afresco | el fresco | la fresque | affresco (m), il fresco (rare) | -- | fresco (painting) | | o armário | el armario | l'armoire (f) | l'armadio (m) | armarium8 | armoire, wardrobe |
| o punhado | el puñado | la poignée | il pugno, [manciata] | pugnus, [manipulum] | handful | o punho
| el puño
| le poing
| il pugno
| pugnus
| fist
| o punho
| empuñadura, el puño
| la poignée
| [manico,
| manicula, maniglia]
| grip (handle)
| o punho
| el puño
| le poignet
| [polsino]
| --
| cuff (end of sleeve)
| o pulso
| [muñeca]
| [le poignet]
| [polso]
| ?
| wrist
| | o licor | el licor | la liqueur | il liquore | *liquor (m) | liqueur (drink) |
This tetrad (liquor) is but one of dozens of cases in which the Fr. suffix -eur is fem. See Introduction.
liquor-eur | o planeta | el planeta | la planète | il pianeta | planeta (f) | planet | | | | | | | | | o óleo, [o azeite]9 | el óleo,10 [el aceite] | huile (f) | olio (m) | oleum | oil |
| o hectare | la hectárea | hectare (m) | ettaro (m) | -- | hectare | | o absinto | el ajenjo | absinthe (f) | assenzio (m) | absinthium | wormwood, absinthe | | o amuleto | el amuleto | amulette (f) | amuleto (m) | amuletum | amulet, charm | | o anagrama | el anagrama | anagramme | il anagramma | -- | anagram | | o arabesco | el arabesco | arabesque (f) | il (a)rabesco | --
| arabesque | | o ébano | el ébano | ébène (f) | il èbano | ebenum | ebony | | o epigrama | el epigrama | épigramme (f) | il epigramma | epigramma | epigram, inscription | | o epitáfio | el epitafio | épitaphe (f) | il epitaffio | epitaphium | epitaph | | o ídolo | el ídolo | idole (f) | il idolo | idolum | idol | | o idílio | el idilio | idylle (f) | il idillio | idyllium | idyll | | o insulto | el insulto | insulte (f) | insulto (m) | [contumelia] | insult | | o ouvido | el oído | ouïe (f) | udito (m) | auditum | sense of hearing | | o polvo | el pulpo | la poulpe11, [+la pieuvre] | il polpo | pulpum | octopus | | o topázio | el topacio | la topaze | il topazio | topazium | topaz | | o viscondado | el vizcondado | la vicomté | il viscontato | -- | viscounty | | Egito (m) | Egipto (m) | l'Egypte (f) | l'Egitto (m) | Aegyptus | Egypt | | o minuto | el minuto | la minute | il minuto | -- | minute | | o cinturão, o cinto | el cinturón, el cinto & la cintura* | la ceinture,* le ceinturon | il cinturone, il cinto, | cinctus | belt |
All the above words mean "belt"; words marked with * also mean "waist"; words marked & mean only "uniform belt."
| o período | el periodo, | la période12 | il periodo | periodus | period (of time) | | o método | el método | la méthode | il metodo | methodus | method | | o ânodo, o anódio | el ánodo | anode (f) | il anodo | -- | anode | | o cátodo, o catódio | el cátodo | la cathode | il catodo | -- | cathode |
Each of the above last four tetrads has a fem. French noun ending in -ode. Note, however, that épisode and exode are both masc.
MMMM
| o êxodo | el éxodo | exode (m) | esodo (m) | exodus | exodus |
MAMM
| o visto | la visa, el visado13 | le visa | il visto | -- | visa | | o açúcar | el/la azúcar14 | le sucre | lo zucchero | saccharum | sugar |
FFMF
| a cifra15 | la cifra | le chiffre | la cifra | [numerus] | digit | | a corrente | la corriente | le courant | la corrente | [vis fluminis] | current | | a aeronave | la aeronave | aeronef (m) | aeronave (f) | aero + navis (f) aeroplane | | | a idade | la edad | age (m) | età (f) | aetas (f), G aetatis | age | a anchova,
a enchova, [biqueirão] | la anchoa, [+el boquerón] | anchois (m) | acciuga (f) | apiuva (m) | anchovy | | a antracite | la antracita | anthracite (m) | antracite (f) | -- | anthracite | | a rede | la red | le réseau16 | la rete | rete (n) | net, network | | a salvação | la salvación | le salut | la salvezza | salus (f) | salvation | | a tíbia | la tibia | le tibia | la tibia | tibia (f) | tibia, shinbone | | a zebra | la cebra | le zèbre | la zebra | -- | zebra | | a apologia | la apología | apologue (f) | apologia (f) | apologia (m) | defense, eulogy | | a epiderme | la epidermis | épiderme (m) | epidermide (f) | epidermide (m) epidermis | | | a insígnia | la insignia | insigne (m) | insegna (f) | insignia (n.pl.) | insignia | | a libélula | la libélula | le libelle | la libellula | -- | dragonfly | | a mimosa | la mimosa | le mimosa | la mimosa | -- | mimosa | | a orquestra | la orquesta | orchestre (m) | orchestra (f) | orchestra17 | orchestra | | a úlcera | la úlcera | ulcère (m) | ulcera (f) | ulcus (n), G ulceris | ulcer | | a delícia | la delicia | le délice | la delizia | deliciae (f.pl) | delight, pleasure | | a ossatura | la osamenta | ossements (m.pl) | ossatura (f) | ossa corporis (n.pl) | skeleton? | | a prédica | la prédica | le prêche | la predica | -- | sermon | | Dinamarca (f) | Dinamarca (f) | le Danemark | la Danimarca | -- | Denmark | | a raiva | la rabia | le rage | la rabbia | rabies (f) | rage; rabies | | a fênix | el fénix | le phénix | la fenice | phoenix (m) | phoenix | | a moratória | la moratoria | le moratoire | la moratoria | -- | moratorium | | a sauna | la sauna
(Mex. el sauna) | le sauna | la sauna | -- | sauna | | a águia | águila (f) | aigle (m) | aquila (f) | aquila | eagle | | a sorte | la suerte | le sort | la sorte | sors (f), G sortis | luck, fate, lot | a sorte, [a espécie, a classe]
| la suerte, la clase]+tipo
| la sorte, [le genre, le type]
| [la specie, genero, tipo]
| sors (f), G sortis
| sort, kind, type
|
MMMF
| o ar | el aire (m) | air (m) | aria (f) | aer (m) | air | a ária
| el aria (f), el aire (m)
| aria (f), air (m)
| aria (f)
| [canticum]
| aria
| | o colar | el collar | le collier | la collana18 | collare (m) | necklace | | o verniz | el barniz | le vernis | la vernice | -- | varnish | | +o imposto, [taxa] | el impuesto | +impôt (m.), [la taxe] | +imposto, [tassa] | impositum | tax | | o condado | el condado | le comté | la contea | -- | county | | o domingo | el domingo | le dimanche | la domenica | Dominica | Sunday | | o plástico | el plástico | le plastique | la plastica | -- | plastic |
MMMA
| o chocolate | el chocolate | le chocolat | il cioccolatto, la cioccolatta19 | -- | chocolate |
There follows a group of tetrads dominated by the Italian noun, whose plural is of ambiguous gender: in each case the fem. and plural forms differ in meaning from the masc. plural forms. In general, the fem. pl. forms have the root meaning of the word, while the masc. pl. words have derived meanings. Lat. cornus (MMFA) and cilium (MXMA) belong to the same group.
cornus cilium | o braço | el brazo | le bras | il braccio, pl. le braccia/i bracci | bracchium | arm (limb) | | | | | | | | | o dedo | el dedo | le doigt | il dito, pl. le dita/i diti | digitus | finger | | o muro | el muro | le mur | il muro, pl. le mura/i muri | murus | wall |
FFFM
| a cômoda | la cómoda | la commode | il comò | -- | chest of drawers | | a flauta | la flauta | la flûte | il flauto | [tibia] | flute | | a flor | la flor | la fleur | il fiore | flos (m), G floris | flower | | a régua | la regla | la règle | il regolo | regula | ruler (implement) | a regra
| la regla
| la règle
| la regola
| regula
| rule, regulation
| | a crina | la crin | la crinière20 | il crine | crinis (m) | horse's mane | | a podridão | la podredumbre | la pourriture | il putridume | putor (m) | rottenness, rotting material | | a traição | la traición | la trahison | il tradimento | *traditio (f) | treason, betrayal | | a médula | la médula | la moelle | il midollo | medulla | bone marrow | | a bactéria | la bacteria | la bactérie | il batterio | -- | bacterium |
FFFA
| intervenção (f) | intervention (f) | intervención (f) | intervento (m), intervenzione (f) | *interventio, interventus, | intervention | | coordenação (f) | coordinación (f) | coordination (f) | coordinamento (m)coordinazione (f)* | coordinatio | coordination | | concentração (f) | concentración (f) | concentration (f) -- | concentrazione (f), concentramento (m)21 | -- | concentration | | a frente | la frente | le front | il/la fronte | frons (f), G frontis | forehead | o fronte
| el frente
| le front
| il fronte
| frons (f)
| front (pol., milit.)
| | a cinza | la ceniza | la cendre | il/la cenere22 | cinis (m/f), G cineris | ash (cinder) | | a marca | la marca | la marque | la marca, il marchio | *marca | trademark | a marca
| la marca
| la marque, [le repère]
| [segno]
| *marca
| mark, sign
|
FMFM
| a cor | el color | la couleur | il colore | color (m) | color | | | | | | | | | a pistácea, [alfóstigo] | el pistacho | la pistache | il pistaccio | pistacium | pistachio |
MFMF
The only entry under this heading is the letters of the alphabet: a, b, c, d ...
| o a | la a | le a | la a | a | A (letter) |
However, the word for "letter (of the alphabet) is feminine in all 4 cases:
a letra
| la letra
| la lettre
| la lettera
| littera
| letter (of the alphabet)
|
Note that a different root is used in Port. & Span. for "letter, missive."
a carta
| la carta
| la lettre
| la lettera
| litterae f.pl., [epistula]
f.pl. | letter, missive
|
MMFF
| o cigarro | el cigarro,23 el cigarrillo | la cigarette | la sigaretta | -- | cigarette | | o cruzeiro | el crucero | la croisière | la crociera | -- | cruise | | o pez | el pez | la poix | la pece | pix (f) | tar, pitch | o peixe
| el pez, el pescado
| le poisson
| il pesce
| piscis (m)
| fish
| a pesca
| la pesca, la pesquería
| la pêche
| la pesca
| piscatus
| fishing
| o pêssego
| [durazno, el melocotón]
| la pêche
| la pesca
| persicum
| peach
| | o prefácio | el prefacio | la préface | la prefazione | prefaetio (f) | preface | | o purê | el puré | la purée | la purea | -- | purée | | o sofrimento | el sufrimiento | la souffrance | la sofferenza | [dolor] | suffering | | o pavor, [+o medo] | el pavor, [+el miedo] | la peur | la paura | pavor (m) | fear | | o êxtase | el éxtasis | extase (f) | estasi (f) | *extasis (m) | extasis | | o oásis | el oasis | oase (f) | oasi (f) | -- | oasis | | o banco | el banco | la banque | la banca | -- | bank (commercial) |
FFMM
| a conta | la cuenta | le compte | il conto | computum |
|
|